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Active voice (contrast with Passive voice) The preferable form for most writing. 'The nurse used universal precautions' as opposed to "Universal precautions were used by the nurse'. The agent (here, the nurse) is the subject of the sentence and is therefore emphasized. In some cases, however, when you want to de-emphasize the agent in favor of the action, you will want to use the passive voice: 'Universal precautions were used by everybody'
as opposed to 'Everybody used universal precautions.'
Anecdote A story. Often used to describe a type of evidence used in argument, as in anecdotal evidence. Anecdotal evidence is sometimes used to appeal to emotion rather than logic. Those who use anecdote in this fashion suggest that a conclusion can be reached on the basis of one incident, rather than a careful scientific inquiry. Anecdotal evidence is, therefore, often used to describe a given argument disparagingly. Further discussion
Annotated bibliography A list of citations to books, articles, web sites and other documents. Each citation is followed by a descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited. Further discussion
APA The American Psychological Association, whose style manual scholarly nursing writing follows. Audiences approach scholarly nursing writing with the expectation that it will follow the format and style guidelines published in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. These conventions must be followed in order to meet reader expectations and to achieve credibility in the world of professional nursing journals. A handy reference
Authority This is a quality you will develop as you continue to write as a professional nurse. This is how your professors sound to you: assured and authoritative. As you learn the conventions and the knowledge base of the professional nursing discourse community, you will take on this authority.
Audience The reader or group of readers you want to interest, inform and / or persuade by means of your writing. Assessment of audience characteristics, such as level of knowledge, level of reading ability, interest, attitude and expectations help shape writing so that you can achieve your purpose. Further discussion
Discourse community A group of people who carry on a 'conversation' about issues they agree are important. This 'conversation' is conducted using agreed upon conventions: what common words mean, how inquiries should be conducted, how information should be presented, and what kind of information is valued. Through means of this 'conversation', a body of knowledge evolves. There are many discourse communities, and an individual is a member of several discourse communities, both informal and formal. One of these, of course, is the discourse community of professional nursing. The 'conversation' in this case spans time and distance in the form of written papers. Each paper is a contribution to the conversation which continually refines and expands the body of knowledge that forms the evidence upon which professional nursing practice is based. Some of the conventions are those of the APA style guide, and the scientific research method. For an assignment meant to clarify the concept of discourse community, click here.
Double-bind (Beware confusion with the research term, 'double-blind') A technique used in argument in which choices offered are limited in order to achieve a given end. In other words, the choice is bound by the options offered. Ex: Would you rather jog or bicycle today? (note: exercise of some kind in assumed) Would you rather eat broccoli or develop colon cancer? (note: one option is obviously negative, leaving no choice at all in reality)
Exemplar A paper in which the writer seeks to re-create an experience for the reader so that the reader can come to the same conclusion that the original experience produced for the writer. The tone is conversational, immediate, and personal. Generally includes some reflection on the lesson or conclusion derived from the experience. Example #1 Example #2
Frame of reference The particular perspective from which we are considering a certain problem. Different understandings and priorities arise with each different frame of reference. Think about an issue from the nurse's frame of reference, and then from the patient's frame of reference. Things look a bit different, and the priorities are clearly different. An interesting discussion of frame of reference in nursing
Passive voice (See Active voice) Editions of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association before the Fifth edition advocated use of the passive voice in APA format papers so as to de-emphasize the author. The Fifth edition, however, states that "Verbs are vigorous, direct communicators. Use the active rather than the passive voice" (p 42). Some professors may not be aware of this change.
Plagiarism You owe it to yourself to educate yourself about plagiarism; what it is and how to avoid it. UMD takes this subject very seriously (see this page from the catalog) and you should too. For further discussion, try the Purdue OWL and the Hamilton College site.
Position paper A
paper in which the writer seeks to persuade the reader to agree with
his or her opinion about an issue of importance to both. The author's opinion
is supported by use of evidence from sources accepted by both author and
reader as credible. The conclusion may or may not lead to recommendations
about taking a particular course of action. Example#1
Example #2
Primary source An
article or study in which new findings are published by the author or
authors are responsible for the research or thinking. Often contrasted
to secondary sources, articles in which the author refers
to or analyzes the thinking and / or research somebody else has done.
Primary sources are preferred for most academic nursing writing.
Example: "You are reading a paper by the 'infamous' Dr Lynn White. She herself
maintains that glucose and stress interact to produce a memory enhancing
effect. White also talks about a contradictory finding reported by the
little known B.B. Black. She writes "Black (1990) found that glucose
enhanced retention in rats, regardless of whether they were exposed to
a mild stressor."
If you wish to talk about Whites proposal, and you actually
have read her article. then
White is a primary reference. You would write something like White (1997)
maintains…." Or "……" (White, 1997).
If you wish to talk about Black's finding, but you haven't
read Black's paper, you've only read White's, then Black is a secondary
reference You would write something like 'Black (1990, as cited in White,
1997) maintains…" " Or " (Black 1990 as cited in White
1997)."
[Copied from <www.li.suu.edu/library/circulation/White/psy4910lwPrimaryVsSecondary.pdf
> on 23 April 2002]
Rapport One way of persuading your audience to agree with your argument. The audience is encouraged to identify themselves with the author - through similar group membership, through shared emotion, through mutual goals, through identification of a shared adversary. Ex: 'We nurses must…,' 'Those who really care for the health of their patients will agree…,' 'Those of us who want increased recognition of our professional status will …,' 'Most of us will agree that HMOs are often motivated by something other than concern for quality healthcare…." See also
Reflective journal A journal in which the writer outlines selected incidents of the time period (a clinical day, a clinical rotation, or a semester), reflects on she or he felt about these incidents, and reflects as well on the lessons these events or incidents taught the writer.
Rhetorical problem The task facing one who
wishes to speak or write to another or group of others in order to achieve
a specific goal.
Scholarly writing The kind of writing that is addressed to the professional nursing community and the broader healthcare community. Its purpose is to expand the body of nursing information, reflect on the writing of other nursing professionals, or provide direction for healthcare policy issues. It uses reason and research evidence rather than personal experience and unsupported opinion to attain these ends. It uses discipline-specific conventions (such as the APA style guidelines) in such matters as word choice, tone, documentation and format. Examples of this kind of writing can be found in the issues of http://www.juns.nursing.arizona.edu and other professional journals.
Secondary source An article in which the author refers to or analyzes the thinking and / or research somebody else has done. Generally less preferable for use in academic forms of nursing writing. See primary source for further explanation.
Style The manner in which an author expresses ideas, generally controlled by word choice, sentence structure and format. These decisions are often dictated by the author's assessment of audience needs and expectations. Scholarly nursing style is considerably different from the style a person would use in a letter to a friend. Includes, but is not restricted to, matters of style such as those set forth in the American Psychological Association Publication Manual.
Summary A re-statement of another's ideas from as objective a point of view as possible. The summary does not include an evaluation or comment about the ideas presented. Contrast with synthesis.
Synthesis The process by which a writer creates new ideas in a paper by means of analyzing other's ideas from his or her unique perspective. Literally, the making of something new by means of combining elements. In the case of academic nursing writing, the writer combines others ideas found in research with his or her own ideas to form a new statement or perspective. Contrast with summary.
Thesis statement A statement
of your position on the issue you have chosen. It may be a sentence or
two, and should
announce what you want to argue. It should have three characteristics.
*It should attempt to convince readers of something, change their minds
about something, or urge them to do something.
*It should address a problem for which no easy solution exists or ask
a question to which no absolute answer exists.
*It should present a position that readers could disagree with realistically.
It should be so clear that it leaves no doubt in your mind or the reader's
mind about what stand you are going to take about the issue, or what the
issue is.
"Think of yourself as a member of a jury, listening to a lawyer who is presenting an opening argument. You'll want to know very soon whether the lawyer believes the accused to be guilty or not guilty, and how the lawyer plans to convince you. Readers of academic essays are like jury members: before they have read too far, they want to know what the essay argues as well as how the writer plans to make the argument. After reading your thesis statement, the reader should think, 'This essay is going to try to convince me of something. I'm not convinced yet, but I'm interested to see how I might be.' " (The Writing Center of Harvard University) Examples
Tone The author's attitude toward the subject matter as
revealed by word choice and sentence structure. Thus, the tone might be
critical, angry, humorous, dismissive, serious, informal or formal among
others.
Writing process The combination of activities that a writer takes in attempting to solve a particular communication, or rhetorical, problem. The problem is the challenge the assignment proposes: how best to achieve the several goals inherent in the purpose in relation to a specific audience. Included may be prewriting, writing, revision and editing activities. These may not occur in a specific order, and may occur several times each in the course of solving a given problem.
